Black elder

The black elder (Sambucus nigra) has been known as a medicinal plant for centuries. However, there are also some myths surrounding the plant.

The plant was voted medicinal plant of the year 2024 by the NHV Theophrastus association in germany.

Occurrence and distribution: Black elder is common throughout Europe and also has a natural distribution area in Asia – particularly in western Siberia and northern India. The black elder can be found in ruderal meadows, forest clearings and in bushes / field margins. The plant prefers a nitrogen-rich, slightly acidic loamy soil (the photo shows a bush between two fields near Lake Constance). Originally the plant was found on river banks and in forests and riparian woodlands. It can now also be found along fences, forest edges and in hedges. Black elder can be found from the plains to the Alpine valleys (up to 1,580 metres in Valais, 1,475 metres in the Bavarian Forest, up to 1,400 metres in Tyrol and up to 1,300 metres in Graubünden.

It is an indicator of nitrogen in the soil. It was often planted around houses and in gardens (reason: see myths and legends). Hegi already reports on the natural spread of the plant – it is said to have been spread by birds and humans. Elderberry seeds have been found in Stone Age settlements in Switzerland and Bronze Age settlements in northern Italy. ¹

Plant identification

Growth habit: This elder species forms tall, vigorous shrubs. These can reach a height of up to 10 metres (rarely even higher). The stems of the plant become woody and form thickened branches. The many smaller branches branch off from the main stem (there are often several). Depending on where it grows, a “tree crown” forms, as the lower parts of the plant only develop a few leaves. At the end of the branches, the thinner stalked flower umbels form. The bark of the branches and trunk is grey-brown in colour and has elongated cracks. The other, young parts of the plant are usually greenish in colour and sometimes have a reddish tinge. A pure white pith forms inside the branches.

Leaves: The leaves have long stalks and often sit opposite each other on the individual branches. Individual leaves consist of several unpaired, pinnate leaf segments. The terminal leaf is often larger than the other leaves. Leaves often have a pointed tip. The edges are slightly notched all round. Leaves first emerge in March to April before the flowers. The upper side of the leaf is dark green in colour, while the underside is lighter in colour. The stalk of the leaflet is clearly notched. Individual leaves can reach a length of up to 15 cm.

Flowers: The inflorescences form in May to June and consist of a flat umbrella panicle made up of a large number of individual flowers. They are pure white in colour and can reach a diameter of between 10 and 15 cm. The five fused petals are arranged in a circle around the centre. The flowers exude a pleasant, slightly sweet fragrance.

Fruits: The fruits form on the panicles after flowering. Individual drupes are initially light green in colour. When they are fully ripe, they have a black colour and the stems are dark red to purple in colour. They ripen in August to September. The flesh is very juicy. Upon contact, the juice colours the skin purple.

Special characteristics of the plant

Special characteristics of the flowers ²: The light yellow-coloured stigma and the five yellow-coloured stamens form in the centre of the individual flowers. The stigma has a three-part structure. These are hermaphrodite flowers. Black elder relies primarily on self-pollination to pollinate the flowers. Insect pollination by bees, hoverflies and beetles can also be observed less frequently. The flowers produce a lot of pollen but no nectar. ³

Special features of the plant’s distribution: One to three seeds form inside the drupes. The seeds are inedible for humans! However, the fruits of the black elder are often eaten by native birds. The seeds are not poisonous to them! This plant’s mode of dispersal is endochory (digestive dispersal). The seeds can thus be transported further away from the mother plant. Seeds are not digested by birds.

Use in cooking

Use of the flowers: The umbels can be baked in lard to make “elderflower cakes”. Elderflower juice can also be made from the flowers.

Uses of the fruit: The fruit of the black elder is edible. They are rich in vitamins and minerals. When cooked, they can be used to make a flavoursome juice or Gsläz (Swabian word for jam). They should always be boiled and the seeds removed. The fruits should not be eaten raw in large quantities, as the hydrocyanic acid glycosides they contain are slightly poisonous.

Use as a medicinal plant

Black elder as a medicinal plant: The black elder was regarded early on as the “living medicine cabinet of the farmers” – as Höfler aptly put it. Some of the earlier uses are summarised in Hegi’s book. However, these are not discussed here, as some of them used the poisonous parts of the plant! ⁴

Folk medicinal use [non-toxic parts of the plant]: The blossoms can be used as a hot tea. This tea is considered a diaphoretic and is used to treat colds. Elder fruits can stimulate digestion. The contents of elderberries have been scientifically recognised as a remedy for mild respiratory illnesses such as coughs, throat pain, flu and asthma/bronchitis. The ingredients facilitate expectoration. Bark of the black elder has been used as a laxative (but it is considered poisonous!).

Ingredients: Black elder contains approx. 3.5% flavonoids (rutin), essential oils, mucilage and tannins in all parts of the plant. The fruit also contains various vitamins (including vitamin C), fruit acids, anthocyanins, iridoids, sugar (7.5%) and folic acid. The seeds, leaves and bark contain hydrocyanic acid glycosides – these are converted to hydrocyanic acid in the stomach when eaten.

Folk names

Folk names: The black elder is known by various folk names in the German region of Swabia. These include “Holder, Holler” (an shortened form of the german name „holunder“) and “welscher, spanischer, türkischer, blauer Holder” (welsh, spanish, turkish or blue elder). There is also the name “Weißer Holder” (white elder – named after the colour of the plant’s flowers). The plant is also known as “Husholder” (house elder) after its use near houses. In Lower Saxony, the name “ellhorn, ellorn” was also common in the past – as a derivation from the Anglo-Saxon word “ellen” ⁵.

Other names were collected by the botanist Hegi, including ⁶: Hunnel, Hüdele (Eifel), Húlungr / Húlandr (Thuringia), Hulla (Bavarian / Austrian), Hollert, Holdere, Holdert (Alsace), Holder(stock) (Switzerland / Swabia). Other names that occur only rarely are: “Büssenholt” (Westphalia), Siekbeeren (Oldenburg), Tintebeer (Alsace), Schlierstruch (Thurgau) sowie Husholder (Churfirsten region).

The name “Holder” is regarded in the Grimm dictionary as a shortened form of “Holunder”. Konrad von Mengenberg (* around 1309 / †1374) already mentioned the name “Holder” / “Hohler” in his “Book of Nature” with the following words: [wir Teutschen heiszens einen holder oder hohler, auch wol holunder, weil er inwendig mit einem schwammechten mark auszgefüllet, gar leicht hohl gemacht werden kann] – „translated: we Germans call it a „holder“ / „hohler“ (german short name for elder / hollow), also known as „holunder“ (elder), because it is filled with a spongy mark on the inside and can easily be made hollow“ ⁷.

The name „Holler” ⁸ (this is mainly used in southern Germany) is said to have developed from the Middle High German word “holer”. In Old High German, the plant was referred to as “holuntar, holantar” (documented from the 9th century) ⁹.

Folk names in swabia: Other Swabian names are “Schwarzholder” (black elder – because of the black berries), “zahmer Holder” (edible elder), “Baumholder” (“tree elder” – because the plant forms a kind of ” small tree”). The somewhat derogatory name “Läusbosch” (lice bush) can be traced back to the sometimes heavy lice infestation of the young twigs and umbel branches.

Why is the german „Holunder“ referred to as „Flieder“ (german word for lilac)?

Elder as lilac?: Black elder is known as “Flieder” (normally the german word for lilac). This is an old name that is particularly widespread in the northern regions. It is listed in the dictionary of the High German dialect as the Lower Saxon name for the elder. In Swedish, the plant is called “Fläder” and in the Netherlands “Vlier” (evidence from etymologist Kilian, Corn.). The name “fleder, vlieder” was documented by Lorenz Diefenbach.

Furthermore, the German dictionary by Grimm states the following: “borrowed from the word “fleder” seems to be the Swedish “fläder”, Latvian “pleder”. the origin is uncertain, because “flader” is originally a maple (sp. 1708) and the Austrian “flider”, “flitter” was used for aspen (populus tremula), derived from the words “flittern”, “flutter”. Though “trembling” and “flitter” are only coincidental, the elder does not flutter.” (a reference to the word “flinder” is made ¹⁰ – there under no. 4 – the following is explainedt: “The botanist Kilian has named sambucus – “vlinder”, Nemnich has named syringa – “flinder”, which may be distorted from “flieder” (lilac), perhaps referring to the fluttering of the flower.“) ^{11 12 13}

Origin of the botanical name

Origin of the genus name: There are various etymological approaches to the botanical genus name “Sambucus”. In the following section I will show the different possibilities ¹⁴:

1. Derived from the Ancient Greek word “σαμβύκη” (Sambuca) – an ancient Greek harp. The name “sambuca” was later adapted in the Middle Ages to a flute made from elder wood. ¹⁵

2. Another explanation could be a derivation from the Aeolian Greek word “σάμβυξ” (Sambyx – another name for the harp instrument!), which in turn is derived from σάνδυξ (sándyks). This is a red colour pigment (Pb₃O₄ – red lead). This could refer to the red-coloured juice of the fruit. A comparison is also made with sandalwood.

The exact etymology of the word cannot be fully established. This was already recognised by Prof. Dr. L. Glaser in his pocket dictionary for botanists and all friends of botany ¹⁶.

Origin of the species name: The botanical species name “nigra” is derived from the identical Latin word and can be translated into English as “black”. This refers to the black fruits of the black elder.

Origin of the English name

Origin of the English name: The origin of the English name “black elder” can be partly explained by various sources as follows. I present these in the following section:

Old English Dictionary by Gerhard Köbler ¹⁷

The following etymological chain is given in Gerhard Köbler’s “Old English Dictionary”: Derivation from the Old English words “ėllern, ėllen” (strong neuter) – which can be translated in modern English as “alder” or also “elder”; Note: see also alor – Old English word for alder, elm and juniper; For etymology: see the Germanic words *aliza-, *alizaz (strong masculine) – these can be translated into modern English as “alder”; a further derivation can be made from the Germanic word *alizō (strong feminine) – also “alder”; compare the Idogermanic words *el- (noun) for the trees: Alder, elm and the bush: juniper (literature: Pokorny Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 302; Indo-European *el- (1), *ol-, *ₑl-, adjective – New German: red, brown).

Dictionary from the “Online Etymology Dictionary” ¹⁸

The Online Etymology Dictionary explains the origin of the word as follows: As a derivation from the earlier word “ellen” and from the Old English “ellæn , ellærn” – the translation used here is “elder tree”. It is also stated that the actual origin is unknown. A connection / relationship to the word alder is considered possible, which could also be the source for the “unetymological word part -d-. The Old Saxon word “elora”, Middle Low German word “elre” and the Old High German word “elira” are considered to be related words.

Origin of the German name

Origin of the German name: The origin of the German name “Holunder” can be found in various etymological dictionaries. I have compiled a small selection of works below:

Old High German dictionary by Gerhard Köbler

In the Old High German dictionary by Gerhard Köbler ¹⁹, the following etymological derivation is given: from the Germanic words “hulandra-, hulandraz”. The further derivation was from the Old High German words “holuntar, holantar” (from the 9th century), with the further development to Middle High German “holuntër, holunder”. The individual sources for the origin are listed there in short form. Reference is also made to the Grimm dictionary ²⁰.

„Etymological Dictionary of the German Language“ by Wolfgang Pfeifer et al. ²¹

In the “Etymological Dictionary of the German Language. 8th / 6th edition” by Wolfgang Pfeifer et al. (paperback version), the following origin is given: Old High German words “holuntar, holantar” (9th century), Middle High German “holunder, holunter”. The word part “tar” is associated with the Germanic endings – dra – that occur in tree names. The following words developed from the initial stressed forms of the early languages: “holer” (11th century – Old High German), “holder, holer” (Middle High German) and “holder” (Middle German). This was transformed into “Holder, Holler” in the modern German dialect. In Swedish the plant is called “hylle, hyll” and in Danish “hyll”. This forms a common word stem.

“Etymological Dictionary of the German Language” by Friedrich Kluge ²²

In the “Etymological Dictionary of the German Language” by Friedrich Kluge, the origin of the word is explained as follows [these theories have already been compiled by the botanist Gustav Hegi ²³]: The word stem is already known before the 9th century. Here, too, the Middle German words “holunder, holunter” and the ahd. words “holuntar, holer”.

The tree name suffix “-der” can be traced back to the Indo-European word *-tro-. However, a derivation from the word for “tree” *trewa (Germanic) or *triu (Gt.), *tre (anord.) or other similar words is also possible (the author of the book points out here, however, that the function of the consonants is not correct – so-called consonantism ²⁴). In his opinion, the name ” Holunder” could be translated as “black (berry) tree”.

Illustrated Flora of Central Europe by Gustav Hegi ²⁵

In addition to the explanations given by Kluge above, Hegi notes that it is extremely doubtful that the first part of the word Holunder is related to ” hohl” (hollow) or “Frau Holle” (a fairy tale character). He is certain, however, that there is a relationship to the Russian word “kalina” (for viburnum opulus = common viburnum).

Heinrich Marzell on the origin of the name and the incorrect connection with Frau Holle ²⁶

Heinrich Marzell wrote the following on the connection between the elder and Frau Holle (translated text / not source!): “The name Holunder has often been interpreted by the uninitiated, and it was soon associated with the word “hollow”, also with the “goddess Holle” (Frau Holle – a fairytale character), and even with “holy”. The Old High German form holuntar shows that the 2nd element contains the derivation -tar, which we also find in Maßholder (Old High German: mazzaltra), Wacholder (Old High German: wechalter). It means something like “tree” (cf. tree). We find the first part, for example, in hyll, the Swedish name for elder. An etymological connection with the Russian ‘kalina’ (Viburnum opulus) is suspected.”

Marzell also wrote in his “Dictionary of German Plant Names” ²⁷ (translated / not source!): Attributing the name to the “Frau Holle (Holda)” as is often done in popular accounts (e.g. Söhns, Unsere Pflanzen 1920, 63; Reling and Bohnhorst, Unsere Pflanzen 1904, 227), is probably just a mythologising gimmick.”

Etymological dictionary of Old High German ²⁸

The Old German dictionary establishes a link between the Old High German word “holuntar” and the Proto-Germanic word *χulan-. This was used in combination with the suffix / Proto-Germanic word *-đra- (cf. also the Old German word: affaltar m., affoltra f. ‘apple tree’; according to Krahe-Meid 1969: 3, § 138, 3), which is typical for tree names.

The naming pattern for the “”Holunder” in Germanic is also explained as follows: the property that its marrow was easy to remove, which results in a connection to the adjective “hol” meaning ‘hollow’ (Proto-Germanic: *χula-) (Kluge already refers to this). In the case of the German word, the spelling Hohlunder is based on the adjective; cf. also Lühr 1988: 203, followed by Schaffner 2005: 327 f.). The suffix is thus to be defined as an individualising n-suffix, and the basic meaning of ‘Holunder’ is ‘the hollow one’.

Another naming pattern is the connection to the Russian “kalína” – see also the explanation by Friedrich Kluge. In addition, a derivation from the Urslavic word “kalъ” – in English: black, dark, moist – together with the suffix -ina- (for the suffix, see Kiparsky 1975: 216 f.). It is thought to derive from the black berries of the elder.

German / swiss myths and legends surrounding the plant

Myths and legends about the plant: Black elder has been a special plant since ancient times. The Celts and Germanic tribes revered the plant. In this section, I would like to summarise a few of the legends and myths surrounding the plant.

Story from “German Mythology” by Grimm

The following story about the plant is included in the book “German Mythology” ²⁹ sand in “Forest and Field Cults” by Mannhardt ³⁰: The following story about the plant is included in the book ” German Mythology” and in “Forest and Field Cults” by Mannhardt: [The North Silesian pastor Trogill] Arnkiel recounts [in 1703] “thus our ancestors also held the ellhorn (elder) sacred, but when they had to cut it down (prune the branches), they used to pray beforehand (translated): ‘Mrs Ellhorn, give me some of your wood, then I will also give you some of mine when it grows in the forest.’ which they used to do with bent knees, bare heads (caps and hats removed) and folded hands, as I often heard and saw both in my younger years.” [Incidentally, this story is documented in a record from Denmark from 1722].

Swedish stories and “the lazy spinner” ³¹

Another story comes from Südermannsland (presumably Södermanlands län – Swedish region south of Stockholm). “…a servant was about to cut down a beautiful, shady juniper (actually juniper – but it was considered a relative of the elder and was also considered sacred!) when a voice rang out: “Don’t cut down the juniper!” He did not heed the warning and was about to cut it down again, when it called out once more: “I tell you, don’t cut down the tree!” Frightened, the servant moved away. [Loccenius antiq. sueog. is said to tell this story, but it is not to be found in the 1647 edition].

Afzelius expanded the legend with the addition: “that on the second cut blood flowed from the root and now the chopping man returned home and soon became ill. Something similar was recorded as a joking twist to the story in the children’s fairy tale “The Lazy Spinner” by the Brothers Grimm: “a voice calls out from the tree to the man chopping wood, ‘Whoever chops haspel wood dies.’

In the St. Gallen folk botany

The wood of the black elder should not be burnt under any circumstances; otherwise an accident is sure to happen in the family. ³² This is also reflected in an old country saying: “If you want to die, cut the elder!”.

From the Grimm Dictionary / German Mythology by Grimm

The following statement is mentioned in the “German dictionary” ³³: The following statement is mentioned in the “German dictionary”: “one should take off one’s hat before the black elder and bend one’s knees before juniper.” This points to the honouring of the plants. In the book “German Mythology” ³⁴ by Grimm and in “Forest and Field Cults” by Wilhelm Mannhardt ³⁵ some of the customs surrounding trees were also mentioned. The Greeks already worshipped trees because of the “dryads / hamadryads” (tree spirits of Greek mythology). They believed that the beings were bound to the trees. They perceived every injury to the branches and twigs as “wounds”. Cutting down trees brought the tree spirits to an abrupt end. This belief in trees inhabited by spirits was also known among the Celts. Sulpicius Severus (Roman – beginning of the 5th century) reported on the customs that spirits were in the trees.

By Gustav Hegi

Hegi makes the following points about folklore in his book [partly abbreviated for the sake of readability – translated]: The tree has been growing near people since ancient times. The black elder was regarded as the personification and home of a good household spirit [Hofholunder], to whom man is indebted. […] It is sacred, invulnerable. If you cut down an elder bush, someone dies, they say in the Swabian Alb and in the Bergisch region it is believed that the mutilator of an elder bush sometimes died on the third day after his sacrilege.

This is probably also the reason why people in many places shy away from burning elder wood. This is justified differently in different regions. In Transylvania it is believed that otherwise you would have toothache all year round, in Switzerland that you would contract diseases or other accidents, in the Altmark the horses of the farmer who burns elder wood would perish.

According to a danish belief, the Hyldemoer (elder mother) sits in the elder tree. A small offering is made to her by pouring milk over the roots of the tree. ³⁶ In the “Illustrated Flora of Central Europe”, he writes about the belief that the plant is the seat of a benevolent house spirit – which was already known to our Germanic ancestors. Hegi had also adopted the custom of “tipping one’s hat to the bush” mentioned in Grimm’s dictionary. ³⁷

Aberglauben rund um den Holunder aus dem Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens ³⁸

According to various old traditions (compiled by Marzell from the Slavic and North Germanic regions), the “subterraneans” live under the elder tree. The Prussians also had a similar belief. Here, the earth god “Puschkaitis” lived under the elder tree. Bread, beer and other food was sacrificed to him. A French sermon book from the 13th century mentions that women and their children made gifts to the elder out of devotion. As Hegi wrote, according to Danish belief, the elder is the home of the Hyldemoer / Hyllefrao (elder mother / elder woman).

However Marzell also writes the following lines (translated): “The interpretation of the word elder as the “tree of (Mrs) Holla”, which is often used in popular depictions, is etymologically unfounded, as are the mythological speculations linked to it. After all, perhaps St Mary is the successor of a Germanic female deity worshipped in the elder tree in a legend from the Bavarian Odenwald, which tells that an elder tree once stood on the site of the Chapel of Mercy in Schneeberg and that the image of the Mother of God of the parish church was always on it.” ³⁹

According to popular belief, the black elder is also a guardian tree of the house. When planted in front of stable doors, it is said to protect livestock from sorcery. Door bolts are also said to have been made from elder wood. ⁴⁰ Related to this is the custom that in eastern Germany, elder branches and crosses made of elder wood were placed in the fields, at the windows or on the manure heap on Walpurgis Night to ward off the witches. ⁴¹

“The black elder as a tree of death” from the dictionary of German superstitions ⁴²

Black elders are planted on graves because of their “toughness”. Even the ancient Frisians (northern germans) used to bury their dead under the elder tree. ⁴³ It is also claimed that the undertaker took the measurements for the coffin with an elder stick and that the foreman transporting the coffin used an elder branch instead of an ordinary whip on his horse carriage. Branches of elder were then placed on the deceased. ⁴⁴

“The elder and the devil” from the dictionary of German superstitions ⁴⁵

The black elder is also sometimes associated with the devil. This is interpreted as a possible reference to the earlier pagan worship of the plant. The names “Hölderlin” and “Hollabirbou” are also considered to be names of the devil. People are also warned against sleeping under an elder in bloom, as one would find death by morning. However, this is seen as an exaggerated expression of the strong odour, which can also cause headaches.

Endangerment of the plant

Endangerment of the plant: The plant is classified as non-endangered on the German Red List.

Distribution codes: A, AV, M1, M2, F, K

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1. Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift n.F. bd. 20 (bd. 36) der deutschen Gesellschaft für Volkstümliche Naturkunde in Berlin aus dem Jahr 1921 ↩︎
2. FloraWeb Artensteckbrief ↩︎
3. Knuth, P. (1898): Handbuch der Blütenbiologie. Leipzig ↩︎
4. Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift n.F. bd. 20 (bd. 36) der deutschen Gesellschaft für Volkstümliche Naturkunde in Berlin aus dem Jahr 1921 ↩︎
5. Deutsche Mythologie, Band 2 von Jacob Grimm aus dem Jahr 1835 ↩︎
6. Illustrierte Flora von Mittel-Europa. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. 7 in 13 Bänden. Hegi, Gustav. Verlag: München Lehmann (-1931), 1906 ↩︎
7. „HOLDER, m.“, Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm, digitalisierte Fassung im Wörterbuchnetz des Trier Center for Digital Humanities, Version 01/23, abgerufen am 30.12.2023. ↩︎
8. „HOLLER, m.“, Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm, digitalisierte Fassung im Wörterbuchnetz des Trier Center for Digital Humanities, Version 01/23, abgerufen am 30.12.2023. ↩︎
9. „Holler“, bereitgestellt durch das Digitale Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache, abgerufen am 30.12.2023. ↩︎
10. „FLINDER, m.“, Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm, digitalisierte Fassung im Wörterbuchnetz des Trier Center for Digital Humanities, Version 01/23, abgerufen am 31.12.2023. ↩︎
11. „FLIEDER, m.“, Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm, digitalisierte Fassung im Wörterbuchnetz des Trier Center for Digital Humanities, Version 01/23, abgerufen am 31.12.2023 ↩︎
12. „Flieder“, Grammatisch-Kritisches Wörterbuch der Hochdeutschen Mundart (Ausgabe letzter Hand, Leipzig 1793–1801), digitalisierte Fassung im Wörterbuchnetz des Trier Center for Digital Humanities, Version 01/23, abgerufen am 31.12.2023. ↩︎
13. Der Schwarze Holler – Regionale Gehölzvermehrung RGV ↩︎
14. Die etymologie der phanerogamennomenclatur : Eine erklärung der wissenschaftlichen, der deutschen, französischen, englischen und holländischen pflanzennamen von Kanngiesser, Friederich, 1884-1965 ↩︎
15. Siehe hierzu auch “Schlesinger, Kathleen (1911 Encyclopædia Britannica – Eintrag Sambuca – Seite 114) ↩︎
16. Taschenwörterbuch für Botaniker und alle Freunde der Botanik : enthaltend die botanische Nomenklatur, Terminologie und Litteratur nebst einem alphabetischen Verzeichnisse aller wichtigen Zier-, Treibhaus- und Kulturpflanzen, sowie derjenigen der heimischen Flora von Glaser, L. (Ludwig), 1818-1898, ed ↩︎
17. Köblers Altenglisches Wörterbuch ↩︎
18. Etymonline: Namenserklärung “elder” ↩︎
19. Köbler, Gerhard, Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch, (6. Auflage) 2014 ↩︎
20. Grimmsche Wörterbuch, Band 10 von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm aus dem Jahr 1752 ↩︎
21. Etymologischen Wörterbuch des Deutschen. 8. / 6. Auflage“ von Wolfgang Pfeifer et al. (Taschenbuchversion) ↩︎
22. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache” von Friedrich Kluge aus dem Jahr 2003 (6. Auflage) ↩︎
23. Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift n.F. bd. 20 (bd. 36) der deutschen Gesellschaft für Volkstümliche Naturkunde in Berlin aus dem Jahr 1921 und Illustrierte Flora von Mittel-Europa. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. 7 in 13 Bänden. Hegi, Gustav. Verlag: München Lehmann (-1931), 1906 ↩︎
24. „Konsonantismus“, bereitgestellt durch das Digitale Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache, abgerufen am 30.12.2023. ↩︎
25. Illustrierte Flora von Mittel-Europa. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. 7 in 13 Bänden. Hegi, Gustav. Verlag: München Lehmann (-1931), 1906 ↩︎
26. Geschichte und Volkskunde der deutschen Heilpflanzen von Heinrich Marzell, Nachdruck des Reichl Verlag, der Leuchter St. Goar, 1- Auflage aus dem Jahr 2002 / urspr. 1938, Seite 250 sowie Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift n.F. bd. 20 (bd. 36) der deutschen Gesellschaft für Volkstümliche Naturkunde in Berlin aus dem Jahr 1921 ↩︎
27. “Wörterbuch der deutschen Pflanzennamen” (Bd. 4, Sp. 64) von Heinrich Marzell ↩︎
28. Albert L. Lloyd, Rosemarie Lühr in: Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Althochdeutschen IV. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009. (ISBN 978-3-525-20770-3). s. v. ‘holuntara, holantara, holdera’ ↩︎
29. “Deutsche Mythologie, Band 2″ von Jacob Grimm aus dem Jahr 1835 ↩︎
30. Mannhardt, Wilhelm: Wald- und Feldkulte. 1: Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme : mythologische Untersuchungen ↩︎
31. “Deutsche Mythologie, Band 2″ von Jacob Grimm aus dem Jahr 1835 ↩︎
32. Beiträge zur St. Gallischen Volksbotanik : Verzeichniss der Dialektnamen, der technischen und arzneilichen Volksanwendung meist einheimischer Pflanzen von Wartmann, B. (Bernhard), 1830-1902 ↩︎
33. Grimmsche Wörterbuch, Band 10 von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm aus dem Jahr 1752 ↩︎
34. “Deutsche Mythologie, Band 2″ von Jacob Grimm aus dem Jahr 1835 ↩︎
35. Mannhardt, Wilhelm: Wald- und Feldkulte. 1: Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme : mythologische Untersuchungen ↩︎
36. Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift n.F. bd. 20 (bd. 36) der deutschen Gesellschaft für Volkstümliche Naturkunde in Berlin aus dem Jahr 1921 ↩︎
37. Illustrierte Flora von Mittel-Europa. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung von Deutschland, Oesterreich und der Schweiz. 7 in 13 Bänden. Hegi, Gustav. Verlag: München Lehmann (-1931), 1906 ↩︎
38. Handwörterbuch Des Deutschen Aberglaubens Vollständig Band 01 Bis 10, Berlin 1987, Bächtold Stäubli Hanns Hoffmann Krayer Eduard ↩︎
39. Bayld 26. 27; ähnliches erzählt man sich von der Wallfahrt Maria Thalheim in Oberbayern: Höfler Waldkult 106 i. sowie Handwörterbuch Des Deutschen Aberglaubens Vollständig Band 01 Bis 10, Berlin 1987, Bächtold Stäubli Hanns Hoffmann Krayer Eduard ↩︎
40. Rockenphilosophie 2 (1707). 328; Ulrich Volksbotanik 39: Msni Sargans 52; Rochholz Glaube 2. 129; Schweiz. Id. 2, 2185. ↩︎
41. Wollt Scruiin. amuletor. medic. 1690,142; Jahn Opfergebräuche 195; Spieß 13; Grohmann 101; John Erzgebirge 197; John Westböhmen 72, 226; DVöB. 12, 37: Wirth Pflanzen 18. ↩︎
42. Handwörterbuch Des Deutschen Aberglaubens Vollständig Band 01 Bis 10, Berlin 1987, Bächtold Stäubli Hanns Hoffmann Krayer Eduard ↩︎
43. Halbertsma Lexicon Frisicum 1874, 902. ↩︎
44. Grimm Mythologie 3, 465; Montanus Volksfeste 149; Rochholz Glaube 1, 193; Wirth Pflanzen 13: Bodemeyer Retchtsaltertümer 186: Caminada Friedhöfe 63 ↩︎
45. Handwörterbuch Des Deutschen Aberglaubens Vollständig Band 01 Bis 10, Berlin 1987, Bächtold Stäubli Hanns Hoffmann Krayer Eduard ↩︎